Database Languages
A data sublanguage consists of two parts: a Data Definition Language (DDL) and a
Data Manipulation Language (DML). The DDL is used to specify the database schema
and the DML is used to both read and update the database. These languages are called
data sublanguages because they do not include constructs for all computing needs such
as conditional or iterative statements, which are provided by the high-level programming
languages. Many DBMSs have a facility for embedding the sublanguage in a high-level
programming language such as COBOL, Fortran, Pascal, Ada, ‘C’, C++, Java, or Visual
Basic. In this case, the high-level language is sometimes referred to as the host language.
To compile the embedded file, the commands in the data sublanguage are first removed
from the host-language program and replaced by function calls. The pre-processed file
is then compiled, placed in an object module, linked with a DBMS-specific library containing
the replaced functions, and executed when required. Most data sublanguages
also provide non-embedded, or interactive, commands that can be input directly from a
terminal.
The Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL A language that allows the DBA or user to describe and name the entities,
attributes, and relationships required for the application, together with any
associated integrity and security constraints.
The database schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by means of a special
language called a Data Definition Language. The DDL is used to define a schema or to
modify an existing one. It cannot be used to manipulate data.
The result of the compilation of the DDL statements is a set of tables stored in special
files collectively called the system catalog. The system catalog integrates the metadata,
that is data that describes objects in the database and makes it easier for those objects
to be accessed or manipulated. The metadata contains definitions of records, data items,
and other objects that are of interest to users or are required by the DBMS. The DBMS
normally consults the system catalog before the actual data is accessed in the database. The
terms data dictionary and data directory are also used to describe the system catalog,
although the term ‘data dictionary’ usually refers to a more general software system than
a catalog for a DBMS. We discuss the system catalog further in Section 2.4.
At a theoretical level, we could identify different DDLs for each schema in the threelevel
architecture, namely a DDL for the external schemas, a DDL for the conceptual
schema, and a DDL for the internal schema. However, in practice, there is one comprehensive
DDL that allows specification of at least the external and conceptual
schemas.
The Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML A language that provides a set of operations to support the basic data manipulation
operations on the data held in the database.
Data manipulation operations usually include the following:
n insertion of new data into the database;
n modification of data stored in the database;
n retrieval of data contained in the database;
n deletion of data from the database.
Therefore, one of the main functions of the DBMS is to support a data manipulation language
in which the user can construct statements that will cause such data manipulation to
occur. Data manipulation applies to the external, conceptual, and internal levels. However,
at the internal level we must define rather complex low-level procedures that allow
efficient data access. In contrast, at higher levels, emphasis is placed on ease of use and
effort is directed at providing efficient user interaction with the system.
The part of a DML that involves data retrieval is called a query language. A query
language can be defined as a high-level special-purpose language used to satisfy diverse
requests for the retrieval of data held in the database. The term ‘query’ is therefore reserved
to denote a retrieval statement expressed in a query language. The terms ‘query language’
and ‘DML’ are commonly used interchangeably, although this is technically incorrect.
DMLs are distinguished by their underlying retrieval constructs. We can distinguish
between two types of DML: procedural and non-procedural. The prime difference
between these two data manipulation languages is that procedural languages specify how
the output of a DML statement is to be obtained, while non-procedural DMLs describe
only what output is to be obtained. Typically, procedural languages treat records individually,
whereas non-procedural languages operate on sets of records.
Procedural DMLs
Procedural A language that allows the user to tell the system what data is needed
DML and exactly how to retrieve the data.
With a procedural DML, the user, or more normally the programmer, specifies what data
is needed and how to obtain it. This means that the user must express all the data access
operations that are to be used by calling appropriate procedures to obtain the information
required. Typically, such a procedural DML retrieves a record, processes it and, based on
the results obtained by this processing, retrieves another record that would be processed
similarly, and so on. This process of retrievals continues until the data requested from the
retrieval has been gathered. Typically, procedural DMLs are embedded in a high-level
programming language that contains constructs to facilitate iteration and handle navigational
logic. Network and hierarchical DMLs are normally procedural (see Section 2.3).
Non-procedural DMLs
Non-procedural A language that allows the user to state what data is needed
DML rather than how it is to be retrieved.
Non-procedural DMLs allow the required data to be specified in a single retrieval or
update statement. With non-procedural DMLs, the user specifies what data is required
without specifying how it is to be obtained. The DBMS translates a DML statement into
one or more procedures that manipulate the required sets of records. This frees the user
from having to know how data structures are internally implemented and what algorithms
are required to retrieve and possibly transform the data, thus providing users with a considerable
degree of data independence. Non-procedural languages are also called declarative
languages. Relational DBMSs usually include some form of non-procedural language
for data manipulation, typically SQL (Structured Query Language) or QBE (Query-By-
Example). Non-procedural DMLs are normally easier to learn and use than procedural
DMLs, as less work is done by the user and more by the DBMS. We examine SQL in
detail in Chapters 5, 6, and Appendix E, and QBE in Chapter 7.
A data sublanguage consists of two parts: a Data Definition Language (DDL) and a
Data Manipulation Language (DML). The DDL is used to specify the database schema
and the DML is used to both read and update the database. These languages are called
data sublanguages because they do not include constructs for all computing needs such
as conditional or iterative statements, which are provided by the high-level programming
languages. Many DBMSs have a facility for embedding the sublanguage in a high-level
programming language such as COBOL, Fortran, Pascal, Ada, ‘C’, C++, Java, or Visual
Basic. In this case, the high-level language is sometimes referred to as the host language.
To compile the embedded file, the commands in the data sublanguage are first removed
from the host-language program and replaced by function calls. The pre-processed file
is then compiled, placed in an object module, linked with a DBMS-specific library containing
the replaced functions, and executed when required. Most data sublanguages
also provide non-embedded, or interactive, commands that can be input directly from a
terminal.
The Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL A language that allows the DBA or user to describe and name the entities,
attributes, and relationships required for the application, together with any
associated integrity and security constraints.
The database schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by means of a special
language called a Data Definition Language. The DDL is used to define a schema or to
modify an existing one. It cannot be used to manipulate data.
The result of the compilation of the DDL statements is a set of tables stored in special
files collectively called the system catalog. The system catalog integrates the metadata,
that is data that describes objects in the database and makes it easier for those objects
to be accessed or manipulated. The metadata contains definitions of records, data items,
and other objects that are of interest to users or are required by the DBMS. The DBMS
normally consults the system catalog before the actual data is accessed in the database. The
terms data dictionary and data directory are also used to describe the system catalog,
although the term ‘data dictionary’ usually refers to a more general software system than
a catalog for a DBMS. We discuss the system catalog further in Section 2.4.
At a theoretical level, we could identify different DDLs for each schema in the threelevel
architecture, namely a DDL for the external schemas, a DDL for the conceptual
schema, and a DDL for the internal schema. However, in practice, there is one comprehensive
DDL that allows specification of at least the external and conceptual
schemas.
The Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML A language that provides a set of operations to support the basic data manipulation
operations on the data held in the database.
Data manipulation operations usually include the following:
n insertion of new data into the database;
n modification of data stored in the database;
n retrieval of data contained in the database;
n deletion of data from the database.
Therefore, one of the main functions of the DBMS is to support a data manipulation language
in which the user can construct statements that will cause such data manipulation to
occur. Data manipulation applies to the external, conceptual, and internal levels. However,
at the internal level we must define rather complex low-level procedures that allow
efficient data access. In contrast, at higher levels, emphasis is placed on ease of use and
effort is directed at providing efficient user interaction with the system.
The part of a DML that involves data retrieval is called a query language. A query
language can be defined as a high-level special-purpose language used to satisfy diverse
requests for the retrieval of data held in the database. The term ‘query’ is therefore reserved
to denote a retrieval statement expressed in a query language. The terms ‘query language’
and ‘DML’ are commonly used interchangeably, although this is technically incorrect.
DMLs are distinguished by their underlying retrieval constructs. We can distinguish
between two types of DML: procedural and non-procedural. The prime difference
between these two data manipulation languages is that procedural languages specify how
the output of a DML statement is to be obtained, while non-procedural DMLs describe
only what output is to be obtained. Typically, procedural languages treat records individually,
whereas non-procedural languages operate on sets of records.
Procedural DMLs
Procedural A language that allows the user to tell the system what data is needed
DML and exactly how to retrieve the data.
With a procedural DML, the user, or more normally the programmer, specifies what data
is needed and how to obtain it. This means that the user must express all the data access
operations that are to be used by calling appropriate procedures to obtain the information
required. Typically, such a procedural DML retrieves a record, processes it and, based on
the results obtained by this processing, retrieves another record that would be processed
similarly, and so on. This process of retrievals continues until the data requested from the
retrieval has been gathered. Typically, procedural DMLs are embedded in a high-level
programming language that contains constructs to facilitate iteration and handle navigational
logic. Network and hierarchical DMLs are normally procedural (see Section 2.3).
Non-procedural DMLs
Non-procedural A language that allows the user to state what data is needed
DML rather than how it is to be retrieved.
Non-procedural DMLs allow the required data to be specified in a single retrieval or
update statement. With non-procedural DMLs, the user specifies what data is required
without specifying how it is to be obtained. The DBMS translates a DML statement into
one or more procedures that manipulate the required sets of records. This frees the user
from having to know how data structures are internally implemented and what algorithms
are required to retrieve and possibly transform the data, thus providing users with a considerable
degree of data independence. Non-procedural languages are also called declarative
languages. Relational DBMSs usually include some form of non-procedural language
for data manipulation, typically SQL (Structured Query Language) or QBE (Query-By-
Example). Non-procedural DMLs are normally easier to learn and use than procedural
DMLs, as less work is done by the user and more by the DBMS. We examine SQL in
detail in Chapters 5, 6, and Appendix E, and QBE in Chapter 7.
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